Girls

Citation:

Klopcic, Alja. 2004. "Trafficking in Human Beings in Transition and Post-Conflict Countries." Human Security Perspectives 1 (1): 7-12.

Author: Alja Klopcic

Abstract:

Transition and post-conflict societies with their negative side-products (e.g. organised crime, trafficking in human beings and corruption), which stem from the recent political and economic changes in the South Eastern European region are of particular concern to the international community - due to their cross-border effects. In the following essay, the author concentrates on trafficking in human beings as a regional and global problem and as a serious threat to the human security of women and children living in the poor areas of South Eastern Europe. 

Keywords: political corruption, migration, post-conflict reconstruction, human trafficking, organized crime

Annotation:

This essay examines how recent political and economic changes in the transition and post-conflict societies of the southeastern European region have led to massive migration and the emergence of organized crime, trafficking in human beings, and corruption. It traces trends and routes in human trafficking in the region after the fall of the Berlin Wall in the early 1990s, as refugees and economic migrants sought to enter Western Europe from economically weak countries in the East or from conflict-affected regions (the former Yugoslav republics).

The author posits that armed conflict (along with other post-cold war political changes) has weakened the individual nation-states, contributed to refugee flows and migration, and “difficult socioeconomic conditions that increased illegal activities,” including trafficking. (Annotation from Nelson, Sue. 2004. "Literature Review and Analysis Related to Human Trafficking in Post-Conflict Situations." USAID Report.)

Topics: Corruption, Displacement & Migration, Refugees, Gender, Women, Girls, Boys, Post-Conflict, Security, Trafficking, Human Trafficking Regions: Europe, Balkans, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe

Year: 2004

Citation:

Ghosh, Biswajit. 2009. "Trafficking in Women and Children in India: Nature, Dimensions and Strategies for Prevention." The International Journal of Human Rights 13 (5): 716-38.

Author: Biswajit Ghosh

Abstract:

Trafficking in women and children is one of the worst abuses of human rights. But it is very difficult to estimate the scale of the phenomenon as trafficking is closely related to child labour, bonded labour, child marriage, kidnapping and abduction and prostitution even though these phenomena can exist also independent of trafficking. This paper has attempted to analyse the nature, causes, modes and volume of trafficking in a country that has recently become a soft target in the South Asian region for trafficking in persons. India has failed to comply with certain international standards to combat the crime. The paper highlights the need to develop a multidimensional approach and focuses attention on structural factors of trafficking for recommending meaningful stratagems to counter the social evil.

Keywords: accountability, governance, military sexual assault, human trafficking, human rights, child labor, prostitution

Annotation:

In giving examples of the various causes of human trafficking in India, this essay notes that the demand for young girls has increased in Jammu and Kashmir due to the increasing concentration of military personnel in these areas.

Topics: Gender, Women, Girls, Boys, Rights, Human Rights, Trafficking, Human Trafficking, Sex Trafficking Regions: Asia, South Asia Countries: India

Year: 2009

Citation:

Fitzgibbon, Kathleen. 2003. "Modern-Day Slavery? The Scope of Trafficking in Persons in Africa." African Security Studies 12 (1): 81-9.

Author: Kathleen Fitzgibbon

Abstract:

Hundreds of thousands of African men, women and children are being forced into situations of labour and sexual exploitation both on the continent and abroad every year. Internationally, trafficking in persons has been identified as a serious threat to human security and development by governments, pressure groups and the UN. But for many African governments, the problem has only recently been acknowledged. This article, the first in a two-part series on the issue, outlines the types and extent of trafficking in Africa, with a focus on West and Central Africa. Contributing factors, in particular the high profit margins and low risk of arrest and conviction, are reviewed as well as the impact on human rights, public health, community and family development and the growth of organized crime. The second article in the series will consider successful strategies and international programmes, with a focus on the lessons learned for Africa from West Africa. 

Keywords: child soldiers, conflict, internally displaced people, Africa, sexual exploitation, human trafficking, organized crime

Annotation:

• Fitzgibbon makes note that civil unrest and internal armed conflict are often to blame for human trafficking in Africa, as populations grow increasingly vulnerable to exploitation, abuse, and trafficking when they are destabilized and displaced. She points to such examples as the Sudanese civil war, the Lord’s Resistance Army, and civil wars in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Angola, Burundi, Rwanda, Congo-Brazzaville, the DRC, Uganda, Somalia, and Sudan, all of which involve the abduction of men, women, and children for combat, forced labor, and/or sexual exploitation.   

Topics: Armed Conflict, Development, Gender, Women, Men, Girls, Boys, Livelihoods, Sexual Livelihoods, Rights, Human Rights, Security, Sexual Violence, Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, Sexual Slavery, Trafficking, Human Trafficking, Sex Trafficking Regions: Africa, Central Africa, West Africa

Year: 2003

Citation:

Acharya, Arun K. 2009. "The Dynamic of Internal Displacement, Forced Migration and Vulnerable to Trafficking in Mexico." Journal of Human Ecology Delhi 27 (3): 161-70.

Author: Arun K. Acharya

Abstract:

Displacement coupled with migration and trafficking has caused a massive increase and influx in the numbers of women and girls into sexual exploitation. The main concern of this research is to investigate how the internal displacement in Chiapas state of Mexico forcing the people especially to women for migration and making them vulnerable towards trafficking. The present research analyzes the demographic profile of displaced-trafficked women as well as their pattern of trafficking and consequences on health. For this study information has been collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary information has obtained through interviewing 40 trafficked women in the Tapachula City of Chiapas, Mexico in a semi-structured questionnaire. Apart from that 10 in depth interviews were conducted to get the life history of displaced-trafficked women. 

Keywords: migration, displacement, human trafficking, sexual exploitation, health

Topics: Displacement & Migration, Migration, Gender, Women, Girls, Sexual Violence, Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, SV against Women, Trafficking, Sex Trafficking Regions: Americas, North America Countries: Mexico

Year: 2009

Citation:

Bush-Baskette, Stephanie. 2000. "The War on Drugs and the Incarceration of Mothers." Journal of Drug Issues 30 (4): 919.

Author: Stephanie Bush-Baskette

Abstract:

At the end of 1999, the number of women held in State and Federal prisons had risen to 90,668, an incarceration rate of almost 60 per 100,000. More than 10 percent of the female prison population had been sentenced to Federal institutions, and most women incarcerated in the Federal system were there for drug offenses. The majority of these women had little or no prior criminal record and were directly involved in dealing or possessing only a relatively small amount of drugs. More than 80 percent were sentenced under mandatory minimum sentencing laws provided by the Anti-Drug Abuse Acts of 1986 and 1988. Approximately 70 percent of these women were mothers of one or more children under the age of 18. Because crime and incarceration are primarily a male phenomena, research to date has focused mainly on the effects that incarceration of males has on their families and communities. Given the greater rate of increase in the incarceration of women than men in recent years, driven almost exclusively by the "War on Drugs," this focus should be widened to include the effects of incarcerating females, with special attention to the displacement of their dependent children. The costs of incarcerating a woman who has children extend beyond the disruption of her life and the expenditure of public funds required to imprison her. These costs include the effect her incarceration has on her children and on those who become the guardians, as well as the financial costs related to the supervision of her children while she is incarcerated. It seems clear that the imprisonment of mothers has immediate, as well as long-term effects that are very destructive. These harms must be considered and investigated whenever social policies are being developed that may lead to the incarceration of large numbers of women.

Keywords: criminal justice, war on drugs

Topics: Gender, Women, Girls, Boys, Justice Regions: Americas, North America Countries: United States of America

Year: 2000

Citation:

Locke, Catherine J., Karen Southwick, Lauren A. McCloskey, and Maria Eugenia Fernández-Esquer. 1996. "The Psychological and Medical Sequelae of War in Central American Refugee Mothers and Children." Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 150 (8): 822-28.

Authors: Catherine. J. Locke, Karen Southwick, Lauren. A. McCloskey, Maria Eugenia Fernández-Esquer

Abstract:

Objective: To investigate the physical and mainly psychological sequelae of exposure to war in Central American children and their mothers who immigrated to the United States on average 4 years before the study began.

Design: Interview study.

Participants: Twenty-two immigrant Central American women caretakers and 1 of their children aged 5 to 13 years.

Main Outcome Measures: Standardized and new measures were administered to assess children's physical and mental health symptoms and exposure to political violence.

Results: Eighteen of the 22 children had chronic health problems. Fifteen children and all of the adults had observed traumatic events, including bombings and homicides. Thirteen of the children showed mental health symptom profiles above established norms, although only 2 met the criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder according to their own reports. Many of the caretakers were unaware of their child's psychological distress. Four of the mothers exhibited posttraumatic stress disorder, and their symptoms predicted their child's mental health.

Conclusions: Pediatricians are sometimes the first and only contacts these families have with health care providers. Caretakers' reports of children's mental health are often incomplete. It is therefore important for physicians to probe for "hidden" symptoms in refugee children. These family members may need referrals to social and psychological services, and pediatricians can open the gates to existing community networks of support. Because we found that maternal mental health influences the child's, the child's interests are well served when pediatricians also encourage the mother to contact services for herself if she confides that she is experiencing some of the severe psychological sequelae reported by the women in this study.

Keywords: female refugees, refugee children, mental health, trauma

Topics: Age, Youth, Displacement & Migration, Refugees, Gender, Women, Girls, Boys, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma, Violence Regions: Americas, Central America

Year: 1996

Citation:

Dybdahl, Ragnhild. 2001. "Children and Mothers in War: An Outcome Study of a Psychosocial Intervention Program." Child Development 72 (4): 1214-30.

Author: Ragnhild Dybdahl

Abstract:

The present study was designed to evaluate the effects on children (age: M=5.5 years) in war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina of a psychosocial intervention program consisting of weekly group meetings for mothers for 5 months. An additional aim was to investigate the children's psychosocial functioning and the mental health of their mothers. Internally displaced mother-child dyads were randomly assigned to an intervention group receiving psychosocial support and basic medical care (n=42) or to a control group receiving medical care only (n=45). Participants took part in interviews and tests to provide information about war exposure, mental health, psychosocial functioning, intellectual abilities, and physical health. Results showed that although all participants were exposed to severe trauma, their manifestations of distress varied considerably. The intervention program had a positive effect on mothers' mental health, children's weight gain, and several measures of children's psychosocial functioning and mental health, whereas there was no difference between the two groups on other measures. The findings have implications for policy.

Keywords: mental health

Topics: Age, Youth, Gender, Women, Girls, Boys, Health, Mental Health Regions: Europe, Balkans Countries: Bosnia & Herzegovina

Year: 2001

Citation:

Betancourt, Theresa S., Robert T. Brennan, Julia Rubin-Smith, Garrett M. Fitzmaurice, and Stephen E. Gilman. 2010. "Sierra Leone's Former Child Soldiers: A Longitudinal Study of Risk, Protective Factors, and Mental Health." Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 49 (6): 606-15.

Authors: Theresa S. Betancourt, Robert T. Brennan, Julia Rubin-Smith, Garrett M. Fitzmaurice, Stephen E. Gilman

Abstract:

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the longitudinal course of internalizing and externalizing problems and adaptive/prosocial behaviors among Sierra Leonean former child soldiers and whether postconflict factors contribute to adverse or resilient mental health outcomes.

METHOD: Male and female former child soldiers (N = 260, aged 10 to 17 years at baseline) were recruited from the roster of an non-governmental organization (NGO)-run Interim Care Center in Kono District and interviewed in 2002, 2004, and 2008. The retention rate was 69%. Linear growth models were used to investigate trends related to war and postconflict experiences.

RESULTS: The long-term mental health of former child soldiers was associated with war experiences and postconflict risk factors, which were partly mitigated by postconflict protective factors. Increases in externalizing behavior were associated with killing/injuring others during the war and postconflict stigma, whereas increased community acceptance was associated with decreases in externalizing problems (b = -1.09). High baseline levels of internalizing problems were associated with being raped, whereas increases were associated with younger involvement in armed groups and social and economic hardships. Improvements in internalizing problems were associated with higher levels of community acceptance and increases in community acceptance (b = -0.86). Decreases in adaptive/prosocial behaviors were associated with killing/injuring others during the war and postconflict stigma, but partially mitigated by social support, being in school and increased community acceptance (b = 1.93).

CONCLUSIONS: Psychosocial interventions for former child soldiers may be more effective if they account for postconflict factors in addition to war exposures. Youth with accumulated risk factors, lack of protective factors, and persistent distress should be identified. Sustainable services to promote community acceptance, reduce stigma, and expand social supports and educational access are recommended.

Keywords: child soldiers, mental health

Topics: Age, Youth, Armed Conflict, Combatants, Child Soldiers, Gender, Girls, Boys, Health, Mental Health, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups, NGOs, Post-Conflict, Sexual Violence, Rape, Violence Regions: Africa, West Africa Countries: Sierra Leone

Year: 2010

Citation:

Fábos, Anita Häusermann. 2001. "Embodying Transition: FGC, Displacement, and Gender-Making for Sudanese in Cairo." Feminist Review 69: 90-110.

Author: Anita Häusermann Fábos

Abstract:

In this article I analyze both generalized propriety as a boundary marker of Sudanese identity in Cairo, and gendered attitudes toward morality and female genital cutting (FGC) as a fundamental aspect of that boundary. Sudanese have been profoundly affected by the ongoing political crisis in their home country, by the displacement triggered by political and economic collapse, and by their deteriorating legal and social status in Egypt. The dramatic changes in the circumstances of Sudanese residence in Cairo have challenged the cultural norm of gender complementarity as men 'stay at home' for want of work while women seek and find new opportunities for themselves. This unstable situation has led Sudanese to place more emphasis on 'proper' ways of behaving and being, an assertion that helps define the ethnic boundaries of the Sudanese community in Cairo. I demonstrate the inconsistencies between discourse and reality through ethnographic data while analyzing how Sudanese have found new ways of asserting their identity and resisting the practice of FGC.

Keywords: displacement, gender making, gendered identity, female genital cutting

Annotation:

In her article, Fabos seeks to answer the question of which FGC (female genital cutting) practices have persisted among the Muslim population in Sudan despite social and political change in the region. She analyzes the situation of Sudanese women who have migrated to Cairo (mainly due to the civil war in Sudan), exploring the implications of changing gender norms brought about by their displacement and using FGCs as a boundary marker for the Sudanese ethnic identity in Cairo. She argues that Sudanese attitudes toward FGC have shifted in recent years, as Sudanese migrants to Cairo have used the practice to distinguish themselves from Egyptian natives. The experience of displacement had altered both gender relations and propriety norms, leading to new conflicts between men and women involving sexuality and morality.

Because of the increased levels of migration among Sudanese to Cairo due to the ongoing crisis in Sudan, Sudanese social ideals and traditions are being challenged in a new way. The mass migration of Sudanese to Cairo is leading to deteriorating household structures and financial situations, which necessitates a shift in gender roles and relations. For example, the concept of gender “complementarity,” which is based upon the notion that the husband should earn the household income while the mother rears the children, is not conducive to the situation of the Sudanese populations in Cairo, where the traditional family structure is often dismantled.

Fabos also addresses the way in which conceptions of modesty among the Sudanese population have changed as a result of migration to Cairo. In an attempt to preserve their values, the displaced Sudanese in Cairo often characterize Egyptians as immodest, including the failure to practice FGC into this definition of immodesty. These gender ideals that link modesty with sexual propriety and other traditional Arab values informs the social interactions of Sudanese men and women in Cairo.

Because morality and sexual propriety are considered endemic to a Sudanese woman’s gendered identity, FGC represents the embodiment of these cultural ideals. FGC is therefore seen as a rite of passage for Sudanese women; however, it is rejected by many Sudanese women who deny a correlation between their morality and their sexual behavior. While it may be expected that instances of FGC would increase among the Sudanese populations in Cairo in an effort to assert their conservative identity, it has been prevented by dissent among displaced Sudanese women who refuse to subject their daughters to the torture of the practice.

Fabos concludes by reiterating the fact the gendered attitudes toward FGC are an intrinsic part of the conception of propriety that marks Sudanese identity in Cairo. As Sudanese communities are resisting the practice of FGC today, they are finding new ways of asserting their identity in foreign cities such as Cairo.

Topics: Displacement & Migration, Migration, Ethnicity, Gender, Women, Girls, Gender Roles, Gender-Based Violence, Gendered Power Relations, Gender Hierarchies, Households, Post-Conflict, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, Sexuality Regions: Africa, MENA, East Africa, Asia, Middle East Countries: Egypt, Sudan

Year: 2001