Female Combatants

Citation:

Zedalis, Debra D. 2004. Female Suicide Bombers. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific.

Author: Debra D. Zedalis

Abstract:

Suicide bombers are today’s weapon of choice. Terrorists are using suicide bombers because they are a low cost, low technology, and low risk weapon. Suicide bombers are readily available, require little training, leave no trace behind, and strike fear into the general population. The success of suicide bombers depends upon an element of surprise, as well as accessibility to targeted areas or populations. Both of these required elements have been enjoyed by women suicide bombers. Female suicide bombers were used in the past; however, the recent spate of them in different venues, in different countries, and for different terrorist organizations forces us to study this terrorist method.

This research paper reviews historical female suicide bombers, focuses on female suicide bomber characteristics, analyzes recent changes in application by various terrorist organizations, and provides implications of change within a strategic assessment of future female suicide bombings.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women, Terrorism

Year: 2004

Citation:

Talbot, Rhiannon. 2001. “Myths in the Representations of Women Terrorists.” Eire-Ireland: Journal of Irish Studies 35 (3-4): 165-86.

Author: Rhiannon Talbot

Abstract:

The average depiction of women terrorists draws on notions that they are (a) extremist feminists; (b) only bound into terrorism via a relationship with a man (c) only acting in supporting roles within terrorist organizations; (d) mentally inept; (e) unfeminine in some way ; or any combination of the above. The representations of women terrorists within this particular discourse tend to present them as a dichotomy. The identity of a women terrorist is cut into two mutually exclusive halves; either the "woman" or the "terrorist" is emphasized, but never together. The construction of a "terrorist" is a strongly masculine one, whereas, the perception of femininity excludes use of indiscriminate violence. Not surprisingly, when a woman terrorist is represented, her culpability as an empowered female employing traditionally masculine means to achieve her goals very rarely emerges. She is seldom the highly reasoned, non-emotive, political animal that is the picture of her male counterpart; in short, she rarely escapes her sex. This essay explores the above dichotomy in five parts. First is a contextualization of women’s contribution to terrorism globally. Then consideration centres on how criminological explanations inform debates about women terrorists and our understanding of deviant and rebellious women. The main body of the paper offers an analysis of the explanations given for why women become involved in terrorism, including a critique of the separation of the “feminine” from the “terrorist.” The fourth section considers the perceptions of women who become involved in terrorism; discussion centres on the role of women as auxiliaries and depictions of terrorists as “unfeminine” women. The concluding section concentrates on female participants’ experience with terrorism: it examines what women terrorists do and how they subvert stereotypes to their own advantage, thereby corroborating the existence of the dichotomous representation. The material herein addresses the scholarly representations that often feed those of popular culture. Academic discourse is regularly presented as a superior form of knowledge. Whenever a terrorist attack or crisis occurs, general media sources frequently turn to academics for guidance in understanding the situation – and its actors. Thus, scholastic constructions of women terrorists can be particularly powerful propaganda tools.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Feminisms, Gender, Women, Masculinity/ies, Femininity/ies, Terrorism, Violence

Year: 2001

Citation:

Denov, Myriam, and Christine Gervais. 2007. “Negotiating (In)Security: Agency, Resistance, and Resourcefulness among Girls Formerly Associated with Sierra Leone's Revolutionary United Front.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 32 (4): 885-910.

Authors: Myriam Denov, Christine Gervais

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Girls, Security Regions: Africa, West Africa Countries: Sierra Leone

Year: 2007

Citation:

Sadler, A. G., B. M. Booth, D. Nielson, and B. N. Doebbeling. 2000. “Health-Related Consequences of Physical and Sexual Violence: Women in the Military.” Obstetrics & Gynecology 96 (3): 473–80.

Authors: A. G. Sadler , B. M. Booth, D. Nielson, B. N. Doebbeling

Abstract:

Objectives: To identify differences in health-related quality of life among women veterans who were raped, physically assaulted (not in the context of rape or domestic violence), both, or neither during military service.

Methods: We did a cross-sectional telephone survey of a national sample of 558 women veterans who served in Vietnam and subsequent eras of military service. A stratified survey design selected subjects according to era of service and location. The interview included socioeconomic information, lifetime violence history, the Women’s Military Environment Survey to assess women’s military experiences, and the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form-36 to assess health-related quality of life.

Results: Five hundred thirty-seven women completed the interview. Half (48%) experienced violence during military service, including rape (30%), physical assault (35%), or both (16%). Women who were raped or dually victimized were more likely to report chronic health problems, prescription medication use for emotional problems, failure to complete college, and annual incomes less than $25,000 (P < .05). Women who were physically assaulted or raped reported significantly lower health-related quality of life (P < .05). Those who had both traumas reported the most severe impairment, comparable to women with chronic illnesses.

Conclusion: This study suggests that the sequelae of violence against women are an important public health concern. More than a decade after rape or physical assault during military service, women reported severely decreased health-related quality of life, with limitations of physical and emotional health, educational and financial attainment, and severe, recurrent problems with work and social activities.

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women, Gender-Based Violence, Health, Mental Health, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries, Sexual Violence, Rape, SV against Women, Violence

Year: 2000

Citation:

Gizelis, Ismene. 2004. “Gender Mainstreaming and Peace-Building in War Torn Societies.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Montreal, March 17.

Author: Ismene Gizelis

Abstract:

Listening to representatives from some of the most resilient conflicts (e.g. Israeli-Palestinians, Eritrea-Ethiopia, Chechnya, and Kurds) one cannot ignore that the participants either as civilians or as military personnel articulate their hatred against the opposing group. Interestingly some of the harshest words against the opposing group come from women. So far the literature has emphasized the role of women as victims (especially in the cases of rape victims) and it has ignored the role of women as active participants in the conflict. A poignant example was the hostage crisis in the Moscow theater where women were a large portion of the Chechnyan guerilla group. In previous studies I examined the impact of women to the outcome of ethnic conflicts, where the socio-economic status of women influenced their attitudes and willingness to participate in the war effort (Besançon and Gizelis 1999, 2000, 2002). Alternatively, new studies have shown that women's issues are secondary at best to demands of self-determination of the particular ethnic group. Hence, women are willing to fight for the group as a whole rather than the advancement of their own rights. Based on previous studies, women's socio-economic status might determine their ability to influence the peace settlement process. On the other hand, women might be some of the most unwilling participants in such processes, since they are the ones with most of the grievances during the conflict. Gender issues have at least nominally become mainstreamed, as an integral component of recognized human rights. Nevertheless, even in cases of interventions sponsored by the UN and/or leading democratic powers, such as the United States, there is only lip service paid to the protection of women's rights. There are three issues emerging from this discussion: First, do women actively facilitate the process of a peaceful settlement; second, do women promote policies related to gender as part of the human rights discourse; and third, do external actors who support democratic institutions and human rights values also enhance the role and rights of women in the post-war settlement. In this paper [Gizelis] tr[ies] to address these three questions by a comparative and cross-sectional statistical analysis of 127 civil conflicts and peace keeping operations, and by using as examples the cases of South Africa, Northern Ireland, and Israel-Palestine.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Democracy / Democratization, Gender, Women, Gender Roles, Gender Mainstreaming, Peacebuilding, Peace Processes, Political Participation, Post-Conflict, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, Rights, Human Rights, Women's Rights Regions: Africa, MENA, Southern Africa, Asia, Middle East, Europe, Northern Europe Countries: Israel, Palestine / Occupied Palestinian Territories, South Africa, United Kingdom

Year: 2004

Citation:

Ali, Farhana. 2006. “Rocking the Cradle To Rocking the World: The Role of Muslim Female Fighters.” Journal of International Women’s Studies 8 (1): 21-35.

Author: Farhana Ali

Abstract:

Attacks by the mujahidaat are arguably more deadly than those conducted by male fighters and could motivate other Muslim women to adopt suicide as the tactic of choice. The use of Muslim women to conduct martyrdom, or suicide, operations by male-dominated terrorist groups could have implications on the jihadi mindset, challenging more conservative groups such as Al Qaeda, to reconsider the utility of the Muslim woman on the front lines of jihad. These terrorist groups will likely exploit women to conduct operations on their behalf to advance their goals and achieve tactical gain. Muslim women are increasingly joining the global jihad, partly motivated by religious conviction to change the plight of Muslims under occupation, but others are actively recruited by Al Qaeda and local terrorist groups strained by increased arrests and deaths of male operatives to fight in the name of Islam. Convinced of the operational advantages of using a female fighter, and the media attention she garners—including some sympathy from the Muslim world—men began to rely on women to carry out attacks. While women enlisted and played a pivotal role in operations, including the veteran Palestinian female Leila Khalid for a myriad of successful hijackings in the late 1960s and early 1970s, counterterrorism experts and analysts rarely focused on female terrorists. According to Dr. Marc Sageman, a forensic psychiatrist, the notion of a woman perpetrating acts of violence “runs counter to Western stereotypes and misconceptions of male terrorists; we assume that women are second-class citizens and rely on the men to run the organization,” rather than challenging our prejudices of women in these terror networks.

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women, Gender Roles, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Non-State Armed Groups, Religion, Terrorism

Year: 2006

Citation:

Ali, Farhana. 2005. “Muslim Female Fighters: An Emerging Trend.” Terrorism Monitor 3 (21): online.

Author: Farhana Ali

Abstract:

Muslim women are increasingly joining the global jihad, some motivated by religious conviction to change the plight of Muslims under occupation, and recruited by al-Qaeda and local terrorist groups strained by increased arrests and deaths of male operatives. Attacks by female fighters, also known as the mujahidaat, are arguably more deadly than those conducted by male jihadists, attributed in part to the perception that women are unlikely to commit such acts of horror, and when they do, the shock or “CNN factor” of their attacks draws far greater media attention than male bombers. Increasing awareness with instant media attention can motivate other women to commit similar attacks.

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women, Media, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Non-State Armed Groups, Religion, Violence

Year: 2005

Citation:

Kumar, Deepa. 2004. “War Propaganda and the (Ab)uses of Women: Media Constructions of the Jessica Lynch Story.” Feminist Media Studies 4 (3): 297-313.

Author: Deepa Kumar

Abstract:

The "rescue" of Private Jessica Lynch was one of the most extensively covered events of the 2003 US-led war on Iraq. In the 14 days after her rescue, Lynch drew 919 references in major newspapers. In contrast, General Tommy Franks, who ran the war, got 639 references, and Dick Cheney got 549 (Christopher Hanson 2003). The coverage of the Lynch story continued well into the year and far outstripped that devoted to any other captured or rescued prisoners of war (POWs), making Lynch a household name. This article studies how the Jessica Lynch story was constructed. I examine the conditions under which women in the military become visible and how their stories are told, both by the media and the military. The military, a quintessential patriarchal institution, relies on the construction of a soldier in specifically masculinist terms. While women have always been a part of the military, their presence has been systematically marginalized. Their role has typically been as "camp followers," i.e., service and maintenance workers, rather than those involved in active combat. Lynch stands out as one among a handful of women who have come to symbolize the presence of women in the US army. Yet, this is not a step fonward for women. Instead, the Lynch rescue narrative, I argue, served to forward the aims of war propaganda. The story of the "dramatic" rescue of a young, vulnerable woman, at a time when the war was not going well for the US, acted as the means by which a controversial war could be talked about in emotional rather than rational terms. Furthermore, constructed as hero. Lynch became a symbol of the West's "enlightened" attitude towards women, justifying the argument that the US was "liberating" the people of Iraq. In short, the Lynch story, far from putting forward an image of women's strength and autonomy, reveals yet another mechanism by which they are strategically used to win support for war.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women, Gendered Power Relations, Patriarchy, Masculinism, Media, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries Regions: Americas, North America Countries: United States of America

Year: 2004

Citation:

Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline. 2000. “Women and the Military.” The Journal of Strategic Studies 23 (4): 32-50.

Author: Caroline Kennedy-Pipe

Abstract:

Debates about the relationship between women and the military have become common within Western societies. These debates primarily centre on the issue of the place, fitness and desirability of a female presence within institutions designed for national war making. There are those who claim that equality betwen the sexes demands the full integration of women into national militaries, including in combat roles, others however argue that women are ill‐equipped for the traditional tasks required of ‘warriors’. This article argues that these debates are increasingly irrelevant. Future wars are increasingly less likely to be fought only by clearly defined national combat forces and more likely to be ‘virtual’ wars involving the deployment of Western technologies against militarily inferior opponents. This too is an age in which Western states will be engaged not just in virtual wars but in ‘humanitarian intervention’, peacekeeping, enforcement and postwar reconstruction. This allows, even encourages, a rethinking of traditional notions and debates over the place of women within the military sphere.

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries

Year: 2000

Citation:

Mazurana, Dyan, and Khristopher Carlson. 2004.From Combat to Community: Women and Girls of Sierra Leone. Cambridge, MA: Women Waging Peace Policy Commission.

Authors: Dyan Mazurana, Khristopher Carlson

Abstract:

Wars and internal conflicts do not end simply with the signing of peace agreements. To avoid a resurgence of violence, it is necessary to develop and support measures for strengthening the governance, security, justice, and socioeconomic capacities of a state. This is a complex task in any society, but daunting in post-conflict situations. While the international community can provide assistance and valuable resources, the local population, which has no “exit strategy,” has the greatest commitment to building sustainable peace. It is therefore essential to draw on the assets, experiences, and dedication at the local level and among all sectors of society. One sector often overlooked and underestimated is women. In most post-conflict societies women are more than 50 percent of the population and are actively engaged in peace building while addressing the basic survival needs of their families and communities. Yet they are often portrayed as passive victims, and little regard is given to their actual and potential roles in fostering security. In October 2000, for the first time in its history, the United Nations Security Council acknowledged that women have a key role in promoting international stability by passing Resolution 1325 on women, peace, and security. It called on all parties to ensure women’s participation in peace processes, from the prevention of conflict to negotiations and post-war reconstruction. The Women Waging Peace Policy Commission was established to examine peace processes with a particular focus on the contributions of women. Drawing on qualitative field-based research and quantitative survey data, “From Combat to Community: Women and Girls of Sierra Leone” assesses how consideration of gender issues can improve disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) processes and documents the contributions of women in official and civil society-based reintegration programs.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Civil Society, Combatants, Female Combatants, Conflict Prevention, DDR, Gender, Women, Girls, Gender Mainstreaming, Governance, Post-Conflict Governance, Justice, Peacebuilding, Peace Processes, Post-Conflict, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, Security, UN Security Council Resolutions on WPS, UNSCR 1325 Regions: Africa, West Africa Countries: Sierra Leone

Year: 2004