Africa

Securitization and Desecuritization: Female Soldiers and the Reconstruction of Women in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone

Citation:

Mackenzie, Megan. 2009. "Securitization and Desecuritization: Female Soldiers and the Reconstruction of Women in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone." Security Studies 18 (2): 241-61.

Author: Megan Mackenzie

Abstract:

This article focuses on the construction of "soldier" and "victim" by post-conflict programs in Sierra Leone. Focusing on the absence of individual testimonies and interviews that inform representations of women and girls post-conflict, this article demonstrates that the ideal of the female war victim has limited the ways in which female combatants are addressed by disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) programs in Sierra Leone. It is argued that titles given to female soldiers such as "females associated with the war," "dependents," or "camp followers" reveal the reluctance of reintegration agencies to identify females who participated in war as soldiers. In addition, I argue that men and masculinity are securitized post-conflict while women—even when they act in highly securitized roles such as soldiers—are desecuritized and, in effect, de-emphasized in post-conflict policy making. The impact of this categorization has been that the reintegration process for men has been securitized, or emphasized as an essential element of the transition from war to peace. In contrast, the reintegration process for females has been deemed a social concern and has been moralized as a return to normal.

Keywords: female combatants, reconstruction, recovery, security, insecurity

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, DDR, Gender, Women, Masculinity/ies, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Post-Conflict, Post-Conflict Reconstruction Regions: Africa, West Africa Countries: Sierra Leone

Year: 2009

Gender-Sensitive Programme Designe and Planning in Conflict-Affected Situations

Citation:

El-Bushra, Judy., Asha El-Karib, and Angela Hadjipateras. 2002. Gender-Sensitive Programme Designe and Planning in Conflict-Affected Situations. Nairobi: Agency for Cooperation and Research in Development.

Authors: Judy El-Bushra, Asha El-Karib, Angela Hadjipateras

Abstract:

The project’s goal was to contribute to the reduction of poverty and suffering through enhancing gender-awareness in the design and management of development projects in contexts affected directly or indirectly by conflict. It aimed to achieve this by increasing understanding of the gender dimension of conflict, both for the humanitarian community and for development practitioners. The project ran from April 2000 to December 2001: field research was carried out in Sudan, Somalia, Uganda, Mali and Angola, with complementary desk studies for Eritrea and Rwanda. It builds on ACORD's experience of operating development programmes in conflict-affected areas, and on its research and policy development in the fields of gender analysis and conflict analysis.

Keywords: conflict, humanitarian aid, recovery

Annotation:

Quotes:

“This project sought to address two particular questions, namely how do gender relations change as a result of conflict? and how might conflict itself be fueled by aspects of gender identity? It also examined the strategic and research implications of these findings for project design.” (3)

“...in general, changes in gender roles at micro level have not been accompanied by corresponding changes in political or organisational influence.” (4)

“It could be argued that even where gender roles have changed, they have done so in line with existing gender ideologies. In this view, the increase in women’s economic responsibilities results from, rather than challenges, their role as family nurturers.” (5)

“Gender ideologies seem resistant to change even when their outward manifestations are re-ordered. Interventions aiming to take the opportunity of rapid change in conflict and post-conflict situations to encourage transformations in gender relations may therefore be unrealistic. Conflict may create space to make a redefinition of social relations possible, but in so doing it rearranges, adapts or reinforces patriarchal ideologies, rather than fundamentally changing them.” (5)

“...if gender analysis is to ‘dismantle patriarchy’, as one workshop participant put it, it needs to forego a narrow focus on women’s autonomy and instead adopt broader, more inclusive parameters. This would permit context-specific analysis of masculinity alongside femininity, and of the relationship of both to violence and militarisation.” (7)

Topics: Armed Conflict, Development, Economies, Poverty, Gender, Women, Humanitarian Assistance, International Organizations, NGOs, Post-Conflict Reconstruction Regions: Africa, Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, West Africa Countries: Angola, Eritrea, Mali, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda

Year: 2002

Exploration of Psychological Well-Being with Young Somali Refugee and Asylum-Seeker Women

Citation:

Whittaker, Sara, Gillian Hardy, Kathryn Lewis, Linda Buchan. 2005. "An Exploration of Psychological Well-Being with Young Somali Refugee and Asylum-Seeker Women." Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 10 (2): 177-196.

Authors: Sara Whittaker, Gillian Hardy, Kathryn Lewis, Linda Buchan

Abstract:

The aims of this study were to explore individual and collective understandings of psychological well-being among young Somali (black African Muslim) asylum-seeker or refugee women. Three groups and five individual semi-structured interviews were undertaken and themes were identified using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Themes included resilience and protection; identity and beliefs; and concealment, distancing and secrets; which reflected acculturation, Islamic and Somali cultures. Spirit possession was explored in relation to culture and religion, mental health, protection and treatment. The women ‘get on’, cope with life, and value support from family, services and religion. However, the pressures to navigate conflicting and changing cultural and religious positions, and to conceal distress, frustrate accessing support. The young Somali refugees’ understandings of mental health and psychological well-being provide an insight for clinicians into the complexities of approaching services for help, and developing shared understandings transculturally. Clinically, the findings raise the paradox of how Somali women value support, yet also value concealment and fear disclosures. The variation and tensions reflected in the data from a small number of women highlight the importance of not stereotyping refugees, but exploring their individual beliefs and providing a range of service options.

Keywords: female refugees, mental health, counseling

Topics: Displacement & Migration, Refugees, Gender, Women, Health, Mental Health, Humanitarian Assistance, Context-Appropriate Response to Trauma, Religion Regions: Africa, East Africa Countries: Somalia

Year: 2005

Southern Africa in Transition: A Gendered Perspective

Citation:

Chiriga, Jennifer, and Patricia McFadden. 1998. Southern Africa in Transition: A Gendered Perspective. Harare: SAPES Books.

Authors: Jennifer Chiriga, Patricia McFadden

Topics: Gender, Governance Regions: Africa, Southern Africa

Year: 1998

Is Terror Gender-Blind? Gender Differences in Reaction to Terror Events

Citation:

Solomon, Zahava, Marc Gelkopf, and Avraham Bleich. 2005. "Is Terror Gender-Blind? Gender Differences in Reaction to Terror Events." Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 40 (12): 947-954.

Authors: Zahava Solomon, Marc Gelkopf, Avraham Bleich

Abstract:

Objective: This study examines gender differences in posttraumatic vulnerability in the face of the terror attacks that occurred during the Al-Aqsa Intifada. In addition, the contribution of level of exposure, sense of safety, self-efficacy, and coping strategies is assessed.

Method: Participants were 250 men and 262 women, who constitute a representative sample of Israel's adult population. Data were collected via a structured questionnaire consisting of 51 items that were drawn from several questionnaires widely used in the study of trauma.

Results: The findings indicate that women endorsed posttraumatic and depressive symptoms more than men and that, generally, their odds of developing posttraumatic stress symptoms are six times higher than those of men. Results also revealed that women's sense of safety and self-efficacy are lower than men's and that there are gender differences in coping strategies in the face of terror.

Conclusions: Gender differences in vulnerability to terror may be attributable to a number of factors, among these are women's higher sense of threat and lower self-efficacy, as well as their tendency to use less effective coping strategies than men. Level of exposure to terror was ruled out as a possible explanation for the gender differences in vulnerability.

Keywords: terrorism, posttraumatic stress disorder, mental health, depression

Topics: Gender, Women, Men, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Terrorism Regions: Africa, MENA, Asia, Middle East Countries: Israel

Year: 2005

Voice Therapy for Women Aligned with Political Prisoners: Case Study of Trauma among Palestinian Women in the Second Intifada

Citation:

Shalhoub‐Kevorkian, Nadera. 2005. "Voice Therapy for Women Aligned with Political Prisoners: A Case Study of Trauma among Palestinian Women in the Second Intifada." Social Service Review 79 (2): 322-343.

Author: Nadera Shalhoub‐Kevorkian

Abstract:

The action‐oriented model of group intervention aims at releasing the silenced voices of women, helping them journey from objectification to full human subjectivity. Applied in conflict‐ridden Palestine, voice therapy can reduce the psychological toll that comes from living in a politically conflicted zone. Women often bear that psychological burden more than men because of the violent political situation and patriarchal demands. Conducted with Palestinian women whose loved ones have been imprisoned, this therapy is applied by mental health professionals who believe in women’s unique ways of knowing and coping and who acknowledge women’s stories and experiences as forums for resistance.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Gender, Women, Health, Mental Health Regions: Africa, MENA, Asia, Middle East Countries: Palestine / Occupied Palestinian Territories

Year: 2005

Rates and Risks for Prolonged Grief Disorder in a Sample of Orphaned and Widowed Genocide Survivors

Citation:

Schaal, Susanne, Nadja Jacob, Jean-Pierre Dusingizemungu, and Thomas Elbert. 2010. "Rates and Risks for Prolonged Grief Disorder in a Sample of Orphaned and Widowed Genocide Survivors." BMC Psychiatry 10 (55): 1-9.

Authors: Susanne Schaal, Nadja Jacob, Jean-Pierre Dusingizemungu, Thomas Elbert

Abstract:

Background: The concept of Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) has been defined in recent years by Prigerson and co-workers, who have developed and empirically tested consensus and diagnostic criteria for PGD. Using these most recent criteria defining PGD, the aim of this study was to determine rates of and risks for PGD in survivors of the 1994 Rwandan genocide who had lost a parent and/or the husband before, during or after the 1994 events. 

Methods: The PG-13 was administered to 206 orphans or half orphans and to 194 widows. A regression analysis was carried out to examine risk factors of PGD. 

Results: 8.0% (= 32) of the sample met criteria for PGD with an average of 12 years post-loss. All but one person had faced multiple losses and the majority indicated that their grief-related loss was due to violent death (70%). Grief was predicted mainly by time since the loss, by the violent nature of the loss, the severity of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the importance given to religious/spiritual beliefs. By contrast, gender, age at the time of bereavement, bereavement status (widow versus orphan), the number of different types of losses reported and participation in the funeral ceremony did not impact the severity of prolonged grief reactions. 

Conclusions: A significant portion of the interviewed sample continues to experience grief over interpersonal losses and unresolved grief may endure over time if not addressed by clinical intervention. Severity of grief reactions may be associated with a set of distinct risk factors. Subjects who lose someone through violent death seem to be at special risk as they have to deal with the loss experience as such and the traumatic aspects of the loss. Symptoms of PTSD may hinder the completion of the mourning process. Religious beliefs may facilitate the mourning process and help to find meaning in the loss. These aspects need to be considered in the treatment of PGD.

Keywords: mental health, posttraumatic stress disorder, genocide, widows

Topics: Armed Conflict, Ethnic/Communal Wars, Gender, Women, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma Regions: Africa, Central Africa, East Africa Countries: Rwanda

Year: 2010

Somali and Oromo Refugee Women: Trauma and Associated Factors

Citation:

Robertson, Cheryl L., Linda Halcon, Kay Savik, David Johnson, Marline Spring, James Butcher, Joseph Westermeyer, and James Jaranson. 2006. "Somali and Oromo Refugee Women: Trauma and Associated Factors." Journal of Advanced Nursing 56 (6): 577-87.

Authors: Cheryl L. Robertson, Linda Halcon, Kay Savik, David Johnson, Marline Spring, James Butcher, Joseph Westermeyer, James Jaranson

Abstract:

Aim: This paper reports a study identifying the demographic characteristics, self-reported trauma and torture prevalence, and association of trauma experience and health and social problems among Somali and Oromo women refugees.

Background: Nearly all refugees have experienced losses, and many have suffered multiple traumatic experiences, including torture. Their vulnerability to isolation is exacerbated by poverty, grief, and lack of education, literacy, and skills in the language of the receiving country.

Method: Using data from a cross-sectional population-based survey, conducted from July 1999 to September 2001, with 1134 Somali and Oromo refugees living in the United States of America, a sub-sample of female participants with clearly identified parenting status (n = 458) were analysed. Measures included demographics, history of trauma and torture, scales for physical, psychological, and social problems, and a post-traumatic stress symptom checklist.

Finding: Results indicated high overall trauma and torture exposure, and associated physical, social and psychological problems. Women with large families reported statistically significantly higher counts of reported trauma (mean 30, P < 0·001) and torture (mean 3, P < 0·001), and more associated problems (P < 0·001) than the other two groups. Women who reported higher levels of trauma and torture were also older (P < 0·001), had more family responsibilities, had less formal education (P < 0·001) and were less likely to speak English (P < 0·001).

Conclusion: These findings suggest a need for nurses, and especially public health nurses who work with refugee and immigrant populations in the community, to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the range of refugee women's experiences and the continuum of needs post-migration, particularly among older women with large family responsibilities. Nurses, with their holistic framework, are ideally suited to partner with refugee women to expand their health agenda beyond the biomedical model to promote healing and reconnection with families and communities.

Keywords: female refugees, trauma, Torture, posttraumatic stress disorder, mental health

Topics: Age, Displacement & Migration, Refugees, Gender, Women, Gender-Based Violence, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma, Torture Regions: Africa, East Africa Countries: Somalia

Year: 2006

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Asylum Seekers and Refugees from Chechnya, Afghanistan, and West Africa: Gender Differences in Symptomatology and Coping

Citation:

Renner, Walter, and Ingrid Salem. 2009. "Post-Traumatic Stress in Asylum Seekers and Refugees from Chechnya, Afghanistan, and West Africa: Gender Differences in Symptomatology and Coping." International Journal of Social Psychiatry 55 (2): 99-108.

Authors: Walter Renner, Ingrid Salem

Abstract:

Background: Internationally, a high number of refugees are in need of help as a consequence of post-traumatic stress or acculturation problems.

Aims: The present study investigated the gender-specific requirements for such interventions taking clinical symptoms as well as coping strategies into account. 

Methods: Five psychometric instruments assessing anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress, somatic symptoms, and social adaptation were administered and semi-structured interviews with n = 150 asylum seekers and refugees from Chechnya, Afghanistan, and West Africa were conducted.

Results: On the level of total test scores, women reported significantly more somatic symptoms than men but there were no further gender differences. On the item level of the questionnaires as well as with respect to the categories obtained from the interview data, marked gender differences were found. Women, as compared to men, reported more somatic symptoms, emotional outbursts, and loss of sexual interest, while men reported detachment. For women, typical coping strategies were concentrating on their children and various indoor activities, while men preferred looking for work and socializing. 

Conclusion: Social psychiatric interventions should take gender-specific symptoms and coping strategies into account. For asylum seekers and refugees, same gender client-therapist dyads and groups are highly recommended.

Keywords: posttraumatic stress disorder, female refugees, male refugees, mental health, anxiety, depression

Topics: Displacement & Migration, Refugees, Gender, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma Regions: Africa, West Africa, Asia, South Asia, Europe Countries: Afghanistan, Russian Federation

Year: 2009

Acculturation, Partner Violence, and Psychological Distress in Refugee Women from Somalia

Citation:

Nilsson, Johanna E., Chris Brown, Emily B. Russell, Supavan Khamphakdy-Brown. 2008. "Acculturation, Partner Violence, and Psychological Distress in Refugee Women from Somalia." Journal of Interpersonal Violence 23 (11): 1654-63.

Authors: Johanna E. Nilsson, Chris Brown, Emily B. Russell, Supavan Khamphakdy-Brown

Abstract:

This study examined the relations among acculturation, domestic violence, and mental health in 62 married refugee women from Somalia. Refugees from Somalia constituted the largest group of refugees entering the United States in 2005, and little is known about the presence of domestic violence in this group. The results showed that women who reported greater ability to speak English also reported more experiences of partner psychological abuse and physical aggression. Experiences of more psychological abuse and physical aggressions also predicted more psychological distress. Implications for future research and psychological services are addressed.

Keywords: mental health, female refugees, domestic violence

Topics: Displacement & Migration, Refugees, Domestic Violence, Gender, Women, Health, Mental Health Regions: Africa, East Africa, Americas, North America Countries: Somalia, United States of America

Year: 2008

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