Iraq

Citation:

Hassija, Christina M., Matthew Jakupcak, Shira Maguen, and Jillian C. Shipherd. 2012. “The Influence of Combat and Interpersonal Trauma on PTSD, Depression, and Alcohol Misuse in U.S. Gulf War and OEF/OIF Women Veterans.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 25 (2): 216–19. doi:10.1002/jts.21686.

Authors: Christina M. Hassija, Matthew Jakupcak, Shira Maguen, Jillian C. Shipherd

Abstract:

The present study evaluated the impact of combat and interpersonal trauma exposure in a sample of 115 U.S. women veterans from Gulf War I and the Iraq and Afghanistan wars on 3 postdeployment trauma-related mental health outcomes: posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (PSS), depressive symptom severity (DSS), and alcohol misuse. Patients presenting for healthcare services at a Veterans Affairs postdeployment health specialty clinic completed screening questionnaires that assessed combat exposure, lifetime interpersonal trauma history of childhood neglect, physical, or sexual abuse, and adult sexual and physical assault. In a regression model, combat exposure was the only significant independent variable associated with PSS, DSS, and alcohol misuse (β = .42, .27 and B = 1.58, respectively) even after adding lifetime interpersonal assault exposure to the model. Results highlight the negative effects of combat exposure on treatment-seeking women veterans' postdeployment mental health. Incorporating combat exposure into routine screening procedures for Gulf War and Iraq and Afghanistan war women veterans can aid in mental health treatment planning.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Military Forces & Armed Groups Regions: MENA, Americas, North America, Asia, Middle East, South Asia Countries: Afghanistan, Iraq, United States of America

Year: 2012

Citation:

Gibbons, Susanne W., Scott D. Barnett, Edward J. Hickling, Pamela L. Herbig-Wall, and Dorraine D. Watts. 2012. “Stress, Coping, and Mental Health-Seeking Behaviors: Gender Differences in OEF/OIF Health Care Providers.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 25 (1): 115–19. doi:10.1002/jts.21661.

Authors: Scott D. Barnett, Susanne W. Gibbons, Pamela L. Herbig-Wall, Edward J. Hickling, Dorraine D. Watts

Abstract:

Health care providers (HCPs) are often placed in positions of heightened stress when serving in military operations. As military HCPs have a large number of female providers, there is a concern that gender may influence both risk and resiliency within the health care provider subgroup. The purpose of this secondary analysis of the 2005 Department of Defense Survey of Health Related Behaviors Among Active Duty Military Personnel (data collected April through August 2005) is to describe stress, coping, and health-seeking behaviors of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom deployed military health care providers and the role gender may have for both health care officers and specialists. Female HCP responses indicate the lives of these women are significantly impacted by their family responsibilities. Reluctance of females to seek mental health care is concerning with perhaps more concern over career than personal well-being. Findings included (a) concern about performance, odds ratio (OR) = 1.86, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.43, 8.12] for enlisted females, OR = 2.83, 95% CI [0.31, 25.66] for female officers; (b) problems with money, OR = 1.6 CI [0.69, 3.7] for enlisted females; (c) having a drink to cope, OR = 3.26, 95% CI [0.22, 48.68] for enlisted females; and (d) damage military career to seek mental health care, OR = 1.78, 95% CI [0.59, 5.39] for female officers. Results indicate needed provider awareness concerning mental health-seeking behavior and sensitivity toward gender differences that contribute to unique manifestations of operational stress outcomes.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Gender, Women, Health, Livelihoods, Militarized Livelihoods, Military Forces & Armed Groups Regions: Africa, MENA, Asia, Middle East, South Asia Countries: Afghanistan, Iraq

Year: 2012

Citation:

King, Matthew W., Amy E. Street, Jaimie L. Gradus, Dawne S. Vogt, and Patricia A. Resick. 2013. “Gender Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms Among OEF/OIF Veterans: An Item Response Theory Analysis.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 26 (2): 175–83. doi:10.1002/jts.21802.

Authors: Jaimie L. Gradus, Matthew W. King, Patricia A. Resick, Amy E. Street, Dawne S. Vogt

Abstract:

Establishing whether men and women tend to express different symptoms of posttraumatic stress in reaction to trauma is important for both etiological research and the design of assessment instruments. Use of item response theory (IRT) can reveal how symptom reporting varies by gender and help determine if estimates of symptom severity for men and women are equally reliable. We analyzed responses to the PTSD Checklist (PCL) from 2,341 U.S. military veterans (51% female) who completed deployments in support of operations in Afghanistan and Iraq (Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom [OEF/OIF]), and tested for differential item functioning by gender with an IRT-based approach. Among men and women with the same overall posttraumatic stress severity, women tended to report more frequent concentration difficulties and distress from reminders whereas men tended to report more frequent nightmares, emotional numbing, and hypervigilance. These item-level gender differences were small (on average d = 0.05), however, and had little impact on PCL measurement precision or expected total scores. For practical purposes, men's and women's severity estimates had similar reliability. This provides evidence that men and women veterans demonstrate largely similar profiles of posttraumatic stress symptoms following exposure to military-related stressors, and some theoretical perspectives suggest this may hold in other traumatized populations.

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Women, Men, Gender Analysis, Mental Health, PTSD, Military Forces & Armed Groups Regions: Africa, MENA, Americas, North America, Asia, Middle East, South Asia Countries: Afghanistan, Iraq, United States of America

Year: 2013

Citation:

Kimbrel, Nathan A., Margaret E. Johnson, Carolina Clancy, Michael Hertzberg, Claire Collie, Elizabeth E. Van Voorhees, Michelle F. Dennis, Patrick S. Calhoun, and Jean C. Beckham. 2014. “Deliberate Self-Harm and Suicidal Ideation Among Male Iraq/Afghanistan-Era Veterans Seeking Treatment for PTSD.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 27 (4): 474–77. doi:10.1002/jts.21932.

Authors: Patrick S. Calhoun, Carolina Clancy, Claire Collie, Michelle F. Dennis, Michael Hertzberg, Margaret E. Johnson, Nathan A. Kimbrel, Elizabeth E. Van Voorhees, Jean C. Beckham

Abstract:

The objectives of the present research were to examine the prevalence of deliberate self-harm (DSH) among 214 U.S. male Iraq/Afghanistan-era veterans seeking treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and to evaluate the relationship between DSH and suicidal ideation within this population. Approximately 56.5% (n = 121) reported engaging in DSH during their lifetime; 45.3% (n = 97) reported engaging in DSH during the previous 2 weeks. As hypothesized, DSH was a significant correlate of suicidal ideation among male Iraq/Afghanistan-era veterans, OR = 3.88, p < .001, along with PTSD symptom severity, OR = 1.03, p < .001, and combat exposure, OR = 0.96, p = .040. A follow-up analysis identified burning oneself, OR = 17.14, p = .017, and hitting oneself, OR = 7.93, p < .001, as the specific DSH behaviors most strongly associated with suicidal ideation. Taken together, these findings suggest that DSH is quite prevalent among male Iraq/Afghanistan-era veterans seeking treatment for PTSD and is associated with increased risk for suicidal ideation within this population. Routine assessment of DSH is recommended when working with male Iraq/Afghanistan veterans seeking treatment for PTSD.

Topics: Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Men, Health, Mental Health, Trauma Regions: Africa, MENA, Americas, North America, Asia, Middle East, South Asia Countries: Afghanistan, Iraq, United States of America

Year: 2014

Citation:

Monteith, Lindsey L., Deleene S. Menefee, Jeri E. Forster, Jill L. Wanner, and Nazanin H. Bahraini. 2015. “Sexual Trauma and Combat During Deployment: Associations With Suicidal Ideation Among OEF/OIF/OND Veterans.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 28 (4): 283–88. doi:10.1002/jts.22018.

Authors: Nazanin H. Bahraini, Jeri E. Forster, Deleene S. Menefee, Lindsey L. Monteith, Jill L. Wanner

Abstract:

Compelling evidence has emerged on the association between military sexual trauma and suicide attempt; however, research investigating how sexual trauma during deployment relates to suicidal ideation has received considerably less attention and has yielded mixed findings. Furthermore, such research has not accounted for other types of trauma that may occur during deployment. Our objectives were to examine whether sexual trauma during deployment was associated with recent suicidal ideation, adjusting for exposure to combat. Our sample included 199 Operation Enduring Freedom/Iraqi Freedom/New Dawn (OEF/OIF/OND) veterans entering inpatient trauma-focused treatment who completed the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (Beck & Steer, ) and the Deployment Risk and Resilience Inventory Sexual Harassment and Combat Experiences Scales (King, King, Vogt, Knight, & Samper, ). Deployment-related sexual trauma was significantly associated with recent suicidal ideation, adjusting for age and gender (β = .18, ηp2 = .03) and additionally for combat (β = .17, ηp2 = .02). These findings underscore the importance of assessing for deployment-related sexual trauma when assessing suicide risk in OEF/OIF/OND veterans in inpatient settings.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Health, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Sexual Violence Regions: MENA, Americas, North America, Asia, Middle East, South Asia Countries: Afghanistan, Iraq, United States of America

Year: 2015

Citation:

Muralidharan, Anjana, David Austern, Samantha Hack, and Dawne Vogt. 2016. “Deployment Experiences, Social Support, and Mental Health: Comparison of Black, White, and Hispanic U.S. Veterans Deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 29 (3): 273–78. doi:10.1002/jts.22104.

Authors: David Austern, Samantha Hack, Anjana Muralidharan, Dawne Vogt

Abstract:

Compared to their White counterparts, Black and Hispanic Vietnam-era, male, combat veterans in the United States have experienced discrimination and increased trauma exposure during deployment and exhibited higher rates of postdeployment mental health disorders. The present study examined differences in deployment experiences and postdeployment mental health among male and female Black, Hispanic, and White veterans deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq. Data were drawn from a national survey of veterans (N = 924) who had returned from deployment within the last 2 years. Ethnoracial minority veterans were compared to White veterans of the same gender on deployment experiences and postdeployment mental health. The majority of comparisons did not show significant differences; however, several small group differences did emerge (.02 < η2 < .04). Ethnoracial minority veterans reported greater perceived threat in the warzone and more family-related concerns and stressors during deployment than White veterans of the same gender. Minority female veterans reported higher levels of postdeployment symptoms of anxiety than their White counterparts, which were accounted for by differences in deployment experience. These differences call for ongoing monitoring.

Topics: Armed Conflict, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Gender Analysis, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma, Race Regions: Africa, MENA, Americas, North America, Asia, Middle East, South Asia Countries: Afghanistan, Iraq, United States of America

Year: 2016

Citation:

Breyer, Benjamin N., Shona C. Fang, Karen H. Seal, Gayatri Ranganathan, Brian P. Marx, Terence M. Keane, and Raymond C. Rosen. 2016. “Sexual Health in Male and Female Iraq and Afghanistan U. S. War Veterans With and Without PTSD: Findings From the VALOR Cohort.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 29 (3): 229–36. doi:10.1002/jts.22097.

Authors: Benjamin N. Breyer, Shona C. Fang, Terence M. Keane, Brian P. Marx, Gayatri Ranganathan, Raymond C. Rosen, Karen H. Seal

Abstract:

We sought to determine whether posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was associated with sexual health in returned warzone-deployed veterans from the recent Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. We studied 1,581 males and females from the Veterans After-Discharge Longitudinal Registry, a gender-balanced U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs registry of health care-seeking veterans with and without PTSD. Approximately one quarter (25.1%) of males (n = 198) and 12.7% of females (n = 101) had a sexual dysfunction diagnosis and/or prescription treatment for sexual dysfunction. Both genders were more likely to have a sexual dysfunction diagnosis and/or prescription treatment if they had PTSD compared with those without PTSD (male: 27.3% vs. 21.1%, p = .054; female: 14.9% vs. 9.4%, p = .022). Among the 1,557 subjects analyzed here, males with PTSD had similar levels of sexual activity compared to those without PTSD (71.2% vs. 75.4%, p = .22), whereas females with PTSD were less likely to be sexually active compared to females without PTSD (58.7% vs. 72.1%, p < .001). Participants with PTSD were also less likely to report sex-life satisfaction (male: 27.6% vs. 46.0%, p < .001; female: 23.0% vs. 45.7%, p < .001) compared with those without PTSD. Although PTSD was not associated with sexual dysfunction after adjusting for confounding factors, it was significantly negatively associated with sex-life satisfaction in female veterans with a prevalence ratio of .71, 95% confidence interval [.57, .90].

Topics: Armed Conflict, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender Analysis, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups Regions: Africa, MENA, Americas, North America, Asia, Middle East, South Asia Countries: Afghanistan, Iraq, United States of America

Year: 2016

Citation:

Mattocks, Kristin M., Sally G. Haskell, Erin E. Krebs, Amy C. Justice, Elizabeth M. Yano, and Cynthia Brandt. 2012. “Women at War: Understanding How Women Veterans Cope with Combat and Military Sexual Trauma.” Social Science & Medicine 74 (4): 537–45. 

Authors: Kristin M. Mattocks, Sally G. Haskell, Erin E. Krebs, Amy C. Justice, Elizabeth M. Yano, Cynthia Brandt

Abstract:

The wars in Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom, OIF) and Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF) have engendered a growing population of US female veterans, with women now comprising 15% of active US duty military personnel. Women serving in the military come under direct fire and experience combat-related injuries and trauma, and are also often subject to in-service sexual assaults and sexual harassment. However, little is known regarding how women veterans cope with these combat and military sexual trauma experiences once they return from deployment. To better understand their experiences, we conducted semi-structured interviews with nineteen OEF/OIF women veterans between January–November 2009. Women veterans identified stressful military experiences and post-deployment reintegration problems as major stressors. Stressful military experiences included combat experiences, military sexual trauma, and separation from family. Women had varying abilities to address and manage stressors, and employed various cognitive and behavioral coping resources and processes to manage their stress.

Keywords: coping, adaptation, mental health, sexual harassment, stress, trauma, women, Iraq, Afghanistan, war, USA, veterans

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women Regions: MENA, Asia, Middle East, South Asia Countries: Afghanistan, Iraq

Year: 2012

Citation:

Beydoun, Rouba. 2008. “Iraqi Refugee Females in Lebanon: De Facto Changes in Gender Roles.” Al-Raida 120-121 (Spring): 36–44.

Author: Rouba Beydoun

Abstract:

The year 2003 was a turning point in the Arab region. The Coalition Forces invaded Iraq causing the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime and the subsequent violence. This has led to a massive influx of refugees throughout the Arab region. Around 4.2 million Iraqis left their homes due to the violence in their country. Some two million have fled to neighboring countries, including Lebanon (UNHCR, 2007). Lebanon is also host to an estimated 400,000 Palestinian refugees who fled Palestine largely as a result of the formation of the Israeli state in 1948 (Shafie, 2007). Aside from Palestinians, Iraqis currently account for the vast majority of refugees in Lebanon (DRC,2005). The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that around 50,000 Iraqi refugees are residing in Lebanon (IRIN, 2007).The Lebanese State is not a signatory to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, thus the vast majority of Iraqis have had to enter the country illegally (IRIN, 2007). A study based on a sample of 2,892 Iraqi individuals in Lebanon in 2007 indicated that 36.4 percent of the sample was female (DRC, 2007).Many factors in Lebanon and in Iraq affect the refugee woman’s role in society. What is expected of her and those around her often changes under emergency circumstances. This article explores the extent of these changes. It will hopefully benefit researchers as well as development agencies by providing insight into the daily expectations, hopes, and responsibilities of an Iraqi refugee woman or girl in Lebanon. The article also aims to bring the typical concerns of a refugee woman to the attention of her host community. 

Topics: Displacement & Migration, Refugees, Gender, Women, Post-Conflict, Violence Regions: Africa, MENA, Asia, Middle East Countries: Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine / Occupied Palestinian Territories

Year: 2008

Citation:

Bloom, Mia. 2011. Bombshell: The Many Faces of Women Terrorists. London: Hurst Publishers. http://www.hurstpublishers.com/book/bombshell/.

Author: Mia Bloom

Abstract:

The ultimate stealth weapon, female terrorists kill on average four times more people than their male counterparts. But why are more women drawn to terrorism than ever before? Do women volunteer to be terrorists, or are they coerced? Does women’s participation in terrorism have any positive impact on their place in society?

In Bombshell, Mia Bloom seeks to understand what motivates women and to redress the gap in our understanding of women’s roles by interviewing women previously involved in terrorist groups. Bloom provides a unique and rare first-hand glimpse into the psychology, culture and social networks of women who become terrorists. Bombshell takes an in-depth look at women involved in terrorism in Chechnya, Colombia, Germany, Indonesia, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Palestine, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Syria, Turkey, the UK, and the USA.

Drawing on primary research and secondary literature, Bloom examines the increasing role of women in terrorism, and considers what it means for the societies from which they come.

(Hurst Publishers)

Keywords: gender studies, terrorism

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Gender, Women, Gender Roles, Femininity/ies, Terrorism Regions: Africa, MENA, East Africa, Americas, North America, South America, Asia, Middle East, Southeast Asia, Europe, Central Europe, Northern Europe, Southern Europe, Western Europe Countries: Colombia, Indonesia, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Lebanon, Palestine / Occupied Palestinian Territories, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Syria, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States of America

Year: 2011