Male Combatants

Military Rape

Citation:

Littlewood, Roland. 1997. “Military Rape.” Anthropology Today 13 (2): 7-16.

Author: Roland Littlewood

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Gendered Power Relations, Masculinism, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries, Militarism, Paramilitaries, Sexual Violence, Rape, Sexuality

Year: 1997

Whores, Men, and Other Misfits: Undoing ‘Feminization’ in the Armed Forces in the DRC

Citation:

Baaz, Maria Eriksson, and Maria Stern. 2011. “Whores, Men, and Other Misfits: Undoing ‘Feminization’ in the Armed Forces in the DRC.” African Affairs 110 (441): 563–85.

Authors: Maria Eriksson Baaz, Maria Stern

Abstract:

The global attention focused on sexual violence in the DRC has not only contributed to an image of the Congolese army as a vestige of pre-modern barbarism, populated by rapists, and bearing no resemblance to the world of modern armies; it has also shaped gender and defense reform initiatives. These initiatives have become synonymous with combating sexual violence, reflecting an assumption that the gendered dynamics of the army are already known. Crucial questions such as the ‘feminization’ of the armed forces are consequently neglected. Based on in-depth interviews with soldiers in the Congolese armed forces, this article analyses the discursive strategies male soldiers employ in relation to the feminization of the army. In the light of the need to reform the military and military masculinities, the article discusses how globalized discourses and practices render the Congolese military a highly globalized sphere. It also highlights the particular and local ways in which military identities are produced through gender, and concludes that a simple inclusion of women in the armed forces in order to render men less violent might not have the pacifying effect intended.

Topics: Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Men, Masculinity/ies, Femininity/ies, Globalization, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries, Sexual Violence, Rape Regions: Africa, Central Africa Countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo

Year: 2011

War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa

Citation:

Goldstein, Joshua S. 2001. War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Author: Joshua S. Goldstein

Abstract:

Gender roles are nowhere more prominent than in war. Yet contentious debates, and the scattering of scholarship across academic disciplines, have obscured understanding of how gender affects war and vice versa. In this authoritative review of our state of knowledge, Joshua Goldstein assesses the possible explanations for the near-total exclusion of women from combat forces, through history and cross cultures. Topics covered include the history of women who did fight and fought well, the complex role of testosterone in men's social behaviors, and the construction of masculinity and femininity in the shadow of war. Goldstein concludes that killing in war does not come naturally for either gender, and that gender norms often shape men, women, and children to the needs of the war system. Illustrated with photographs, drawings, and graphics, and drawing from scholarship spanning six academic disciplines, War and Gender translates and synthesizes our latest understanding of gender roles in war. (WorldCat)

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Masculinity/ies, Femininity/ies

Year: 2001

Rape as Weapon of War in the Eastern DRC? The Victims' Perspective

Citation:

Maedl, Anna. 2011. "Rape as Weapon of War in the Eastern DRC? The Victims' Perspective." Human Rights Quarterly 33 (1): 128-47.

Author: Anna Maedl

Abstract:

Rampant sexual violence is one of the most horrendous human rights abuses taking place within Democratic Republic of the Congo's (DRC) armed conflict. The UN has called these abuses "strategic" and a "weapon of war." Both labels carry specific implications within the human rights discourse. However, there is a lack of structured data exploring these concepts in the context of the DRC. To address this empirical gap, twenty-five rape survivors were interviewed. In the eyes of the victims the rapes served a multitude of different purposes and appear to be both endemic and indiscriminate. The rapes are the modus operandi of the war.

Keywords: sexual violence, rape, war rape, weapon of war

Annotation:

Quotes:
 
"To address this analytical and empirical gap, twenty-five rape survivors were interviewed by clinical psychologists using a structured protocol. The participants were asked about a) basic socioeconomic data about their lives before the rape, b) data on the alleged perpetrators and their courses of action during the rape, c) the perceived reasons for the rape, and d) further victims of the crime (e.g. people who were forced to watch, beaten, abducted, killed, or also raped)." (129)
 
"No woman reported that there was a single offender: 31.8 percent of the women were attacked by two to four combatants, 18.2 percent by five to ten, 13.6 percent by eleven to twenty, and 36.4 percent of the women were attacked by more than twenty combatants." (139)
 
"Additionally, some authors have suggested that gang rapes serve internal group purposes. They could establish hierarchy within armed groups, i.e. the highest man in the hierarchy rapes a woman first and so on, and they are thought to increase male group bonding through the common experience of rape and to overcome moral barriers through group pressure. The data suggests that armed groups organize and act together to rape civilian women. This practice can hence be described as a deliberate pattern of action. However, in order to call it a strategy or weapon of war, the motives or aims this strategy is meant to serve would have to be clarified." (141)
 
"Almost half of the perpetrators are thought to have been on drugs or drunk while they raped their victims. The use of drugs has also been reported by FARDC soldiers and it has been alleged that child combatants are forced to take drugs. Marijuana is grown (possibly in large quantities) in the territory of Uvira by the FDLR. There are also reports from other conflicts, such as Bosnia-Herzegovina, that women have frequently been raped by combatants who were under the influence of alcohol. To understand whether and how rape is used as weapon of war, it may be of importance to clarify if psychoactive substances serve a specific function within this context. They could, for example, be used to overcome moral barriers, or the substances themselves could be sexually stimulating and foster aggression. In this context it would also be important to know whether their superiors give combatants drugs or alcohol." (141-142)
 
"Many women could clearly confirm that there was a hierarchical structure within the group of attackers, i.e. these women could hear someone giving orders or identify one of the perpetrators as being a superior of the others. This observation is highly relevant, because it provides evidence that the rapes are perpetrated as a military activity and are an inherent part of the groups’ conduct. It further shows that superiors could be held responsible for the behavior of their groups." (142)
 
"In the eyes of most women there were multiple reasons why they were raped. These included strategic purposes, as well as opportunistic behavior. To displace communities, instill fear within them, to punish them, as well as to gain or destroy magical power could be seen as strategic objectives. The first two ranked highest amongst the participants’ answers. Fewer women than expected reported that the rapes were to punish their communities. Often the women did not consider their communities to be parties in any way to the conflict." (145)
 
"To transmit diseases (like HIV/AIDS) and to impregnate women are also deemed strategic objectives of rape. Taken together, 57 percent of the women thought that these were reasons why they were raped. If these are indeed strategic objectives of sexual abuse, the long-term goals behind such strategies must be clarified." (145)
 
"Furthermore, almost one-third of the women believed that the combatants raped them to be sexually relieved and 19 percent thought that they were raped “just for fun.” Though these explanations were not given as often as others, their frequency is still alarming and points to the enormity of the culture of violence and sexism present in the Eastern DRC. Women themselves are considered a 'lootable resource.'" (145)

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Gender-Based Violence, Gendered Power Relations, Health, HIV/AIDS, International Organizations, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Rights, Human Rights, Women's Rights, Security, Sexual Violence, Rape, SV against Women Regions: Africa, Central Africa Countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo

Year: 2011

The Veterans’ Health Administration and Military Sexual Trauma

Citation:

Kimerling, Rachel, Kristian Gima, Mark W. Smith, Amy Street and Susan Frayne. 2007. "The Veterans’ Health Administration and Military Sexual Trauma." American Journal of Public Health 97 (12): 2160-66.

Authors: Rachel Kimerling, Kristian Gima, Mark W. Smith, Amy Street, Susan Frayne

Abstract:

We examined the utility of the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) universal screening program for military sexual violence.

Methods. We analyzed VHA administrative data for 185880 women and 4139888 men who were veteran outpatients and were treated in VHA health care settings nationwide during 2003. Results. Screening was completed for 70% of patients. Positive screens were associated with greater odds of virtually all categories of mental health comorbidities, including posttraumatic stress disorder (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 8.83; 99% confidence interval [CI] = 8.34, 9.35 for women; AOR = 3.00; 99% CI = 2.89, 3.12 for men). Associations with medical comorbidities (e.g., chronic pulmonary disease, liver disease, and for women, weight conditions) were also observed. Significant gender differences emerged.

Conclusions. The VHA policies regarding military sexual trauma represent a uniquely comprehensive health care response to sexual trauma. Results attest to the feasibility of universal screening, which yields clinically significant information with particular relevance to mental health and behavioral health treatment. Women's health literature regarding sexual trauma will be particularly important to inform health care services for both male and female veterans.

Keywords: sexual violence, military, health

Annotation:

Quotes:

"The risk of exposure to sexual violence within the military is high. The annual incidence of experiencing sexual assault is 3% among active duty women and 1% among active duty men. Sexual coercion (e.g., quid pro quo promises of job benefits or threats of job loss) and unwanted sexual attention (e.g., touching, fondling, or threatening attempts to initiate a sexual relationship) occur at an annual rate of 8% and 27%, respectively, among women and 1 % and 5% among men." (Kimerling et al., 2160)

"To our knowledge, we are the first to study the VHA's MST program, which  provides an unparalleled opportunity to investigate the feasibility and clinical utility of screening for sexual violence and provides unique data to characterize the burden of illness associated with MST." (Kimerling et al., 2160)

"The approach to MST should therefore attend to both women and men and examine gender associated with MST as an initial step in the development of gender-specific interventions. Ours is the first examination of nationwide screening data for MST in the VHA and directly informs continued efforts to develop a gender-specific response to the health-related costs of military service and war. Specifically, we examined 3 issues: (1) whether universal screening detects a substantial population of VHA patients who report MST, (2) whether a greater burden of medical and mental illness is found among patients who screen positive for MST compared with patients who screen negative, and (3) whether the burden of illness associated with MST varies by patient gender." (Kimerling et al., 2161)

"The VHA universal screening program for MST screened over 70% of all patients, a rate commensurate with other screening-related performance measures collected by VHA in the same fiscal year: 80% for alcohol screening, 75% for tobacco counseling, and 90% for cervical cancer screening. Screening data indicate that MST is prevalent among veterans who seek VA health care, and as such, represents an important issue for VHA facilities." (Kimerling et al., 2163)

"Approximately 22% of screened veteran women reported MST, which represents 29418 patients. Sexual trauma, including MST, is often viewed as primarily a women's health issue and the proportion of positive screens among male patients is significantly lower than among women, only slightly over 1 %. However, because the majority of VHA patients are men, this prevalence results in a detected clinical population of 31 797 patients, comparable in size to the MST population of female patients." (Kimerling et al., 2163)

"The diagnosis of PTSD, however, is more common among women veterans with a military sexual trauma than among those who report other traumatic events or other sexual assaults. Furthermore, the effects of previous trauma or civilian sexual assault do not account for the strong relation observed between MST and PTSD.'" (Kimerling et al., 2164)

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Women, Men, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries, Sexual Violence Regions: Americas, North America Countries: United States of America

Year: 2007

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Functioning and Quality of Life Outcomes in a Nationally Representative Sample of Male Vietnam Veterans

Citation:

Zatzick, Douglas F., Charles R. Marmar, Daniel S. Weiss, Warren S. Browner, Thomas J. Metzler, Jacqueline M. Golding, Anita Stewart, William E. Schlenger, and Kenneth B. Wells. 1997. "Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Functioning and Quality of Life Outcomes in a Nationally Representative Sample of Male Vietnam Veterans." American Journal of Psychiatry 154 (12): 1690-1695.

Authors: Douglas F. Zatzick, Charles R. Marmar, Daniel S. Weiss, Warren S. Browner, Thomas J. Metzler, Jacqueline M. Golding, Anita Stewart, William E. Schlenger, Kenneth B. Wells

Abstract:

Objective: Although posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a highly prevalent and often chronic condition, the relationship between PTSD and functioning and quality of life remains incompletely understood. 

Method: The authors undertook an archival analysis of data from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. The study subjects consisted of the nationally representative sample of male Vietnam veterans who participated in the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. The authors estimated PTSD at the time of the interview with the Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. They examined the following outcomes: diminished well-being, physical limitations, bed day in the past 2 weeks, compromised physical health status, currently not working, and perpetration of violence. Logistic models were used to determine the association between PTSD and outcome; adjustment was made for demographic characteristics and comorbid psychiatric and other medical conditions.

Results: The risks of poorer outcome were significantly higher in subjects with PTSD than in subjects without PTSD in five of the six domains. For the outcome domains of physical limitations, not working, compromised physical health, and diminished wellbeing, these significantly higher risks persisted even in the most conservative logistic models that removed the shared effects of comorbid psychiatric and other medical disorders. 

Conclusions: The suffering associated with combat related-PTSD extends beyond the signs and symptoms of the disorder to broader areas of functional and social morbidity. The significantly higher risk of impaired functioning and diminished quality of life uniquely attributable to PTSD suggests that PTSD may well be the core problem in this group of difficult to treat and multiply afflicted patients.

Keywords: male veterans, posttraumatic stress disorder, mental health

Topics: Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Men, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma Regions: Americas, North America Countries: United States of America

Year: 1997

Impact of Exposure to Combat during Deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan on Mental Health by Gender

Citation:

Woodhead, C., S. Wessely, N. Jones, T. Fear, and S. L. Hatch. 2012. "Impact of Exposure to Combat during Deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan on Mental Health by Gender." Psychological Medicine 42 (9): 1-12.

Authors: C. Woodhead, S. Wessely, N. Jones, T. Fear, S. L. Hatch

Abstract:

 
Background: Interest in the mental health of women deployed to modern military campaigns is increasing, although research examining gender differences is limited. Little is known about experiences women have had on these deployments, or whether men and women respond differently to combat exposure.
 
Method: The current study used data from a representative sample of UK Armed Forces personnel to examine gender differences among those deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan (n=432 women, n=4554 men) in three measures of experience: ‘risk to self’, ‘trauma to others’ and ‘appraisal of deployment’. We examined the impact of such experiences on post-deployment symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), symptoms of common mental disorder (CMD) and hazardous alcohol use.

Results: After adjustment, men reported more exposure to ‘risk to self’ and ‘trauma to others’ events and more negative appraisals of their deployment. Among both genders, all measures of combat experience were associated with symptoms of PTSD and CMD (except ‘risk to self’ events on symptoms of CMD among women) but not with alcohol misuse. Women reported higher scores on the PTSD Checklist – Civilian Version (PCL-C) among those exposed to lower levels of each experience type but this did not hold in the higher levels. Women reported greater symptoms of CMD and men reported greater hazardous alcohol use across both levels of each experience type. Examining men and women separately suggested similar responses to exposure to adverse combat experiences.

Conclusions: The current findings suggest that, although gender differences in mental health exist, the impact of deployment on mental health is similar among men and women.

Keywords: mental health, female soldiers, male soldiers, posttraumatic stress disorder, substance abuse

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Women, Men, Health, Mental Health, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries Regions: Europe, Western Europe Countries: United Kingdom

Year: 2012

Gender Differences in Combat-Related Stressors and Their Associations with Postdeployment Mental Health in a Nationally Representative Sample of U.S. OEF/OIF Veterans

Citation:

Vogt, Dawne, Rachel Vaughn, Mark E. Glickman, Mark Schultz, Mari-Lynn Drainoni, Rani Elwy, and Susan Eisen. 2011. "Gender Differences in Combat-related Stressors and Their Association with Postdeployment Mental Health in a Nationally Representative Sample of U.S. OEF/OIF Veterans." Journal of Abnormal Psychology 120 (4): 797-806.

Authors: Dawne Vogt, Rachel Vaughn, Mark E. Glickman, Mark Schultz, Mari-Lynn Drainoni, Rani Elwy, Susan Eisen

Abstract:

Though the broader literature suggests that women may be more vulnerable to the effects of trauma exposure, most available studies on combat trauma have relied on samples in which women's combat exposure is limited and analyses that do not directly address gender differences in associations between combat exposure and postdeployment mental health. Female service members' increased exposure to combat in Afghanistan and Iraq provides a unique opportunity to evaluate gender differences in different dimensions of combat-related stress and associated consequence for postdeployment mental health. The current study addressed these research questions in a representative sample of female and male U.S. veterans who had returned from deployment to Afghanistan or Iraq within the previous year. As expected, women reported slightly less exposure than men to most combat-related stressors, but higher exposure to other stressors (i.e., prior life stress, deployment sexual harassment). No gender differences were observed in reports of perceived threat in the war zone. Though it was hypothesized that combat-related stressors would demonstrate stronger negative associations with postdeployment mental health for women, only one of 16 stressor x gender interactions achieved statistical significance and an evaluation of the clinical significance of these interactions revealed that effects were trivial. Results suggest that female Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom service members may be as resilient to combat-related stress as men. Future research is needed to evaluate gender differences in the longer-term effects of combat exposure.

Keywords: female veterans, male veterans, trauma, mental health

Topics: Armed Conflict, Combatants, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Women, Men, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries Regions: Americas, North America Countries: United States of America

Year: 2011

Effects of Premilitary and Military Trauma on the Development of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Female and Male Active Duty Soldiers

Citation:

Stretch, Robert H., Kathryn H. Knudson, and Doris Durand. 1998. "Effects of Premilitary and Military Trauma on the Development of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Female and Male Active Duty Soldiers." Military Medicine 163 (7): 466-470.

Authors: Robert H. Stretch, Kathryn H. Knudson, Doris Durand

Abstract:

Surveyed 573 female and 555 male active duty US Army soldiers (average age 25.9 yrs) to assess the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, whether there were gender differences, and the relation between prevalence of exposure to different types of traumatic events (death/injury, sexual, nonsexual, personal injury) and symptoms. Questionnaire results indicated significant gender differences in types of traumatic events experienced, with females reporting more sexual traumas and males reporting more nonsexual traumas. Males reported experi- encing more military-related traumas, whereas females reported more premilitary traumas. The prevalence of PTSD symptoms was 8.6% for females and 5% for males. Females reported greater psychological distress in response to trauma than males. 

Keywords: female soldiers, male soldiers, trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, mental health

Topics: Combatants, Female Combatants, Male Combatants, Gender, Women, Men, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups, Militaries, Sexual Violence, SV against Men, SV against Women Regions: Americas, North America Countries: United States of America

Year: 1998

PTSD and Utilization of Medical Treatment Services among Male Vietnam Veterans

Citation:

Schnurr, Paula P., Matthew J. Friedman, Anjana Sengupta, M. K. Jankowski, and Tamara Holmes. 2000. "PTSD and Utilization of Medical Treatment Services among Male Vietnam Veterans." The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 188 (8): 496-504.

Authors: Paula P. Schnurr, Matthew J. Friedman, Anjana Sengupta, M. K. Jankowski, Tamara Holmes

Abstract:

This study investigated the effect of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on help-seeking for physical problems. Merging two large data sets resulted in a sample of 1773 male Vietnam veterans from white, black, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian, and Japanese American ethnic groups. Predictors of utilization included PTSD, other axis I disorders, and substance abuse. In analyses that adjusted only for age, PTSD was related to greater utilization of recent and lifetime VA medical services, and with recent inpatient care from all sources. Further analysis showed that the increased utilization associated with PTSD was not merely due to the high comorbidity between PTSD and other axis I disorders. The uniqueness of the association between PTSD and medical utilization is discussed in terms of somatization and physical illness. 

Keywords: male veterans, posttraumatic stress disorder, mental health

Topics: Combatants, Male Combatants, Ethnicity, Gender, Men, Health, Mental Health, PTSD, Trauma, Military Forces & Armed Groups Regions: Americas, North America, Asia, Southeast Asia Countries: United States of America, Vietnam

Year: 2000

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